Ants!
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Albert Antstein!
Ants
Ants are social insects that belong to the same order as the wasps and bees. Ants are of particular interest because of their highly organized colonies or nests which sometimes consist of millions of individuals. Individuals are divided into workers, soldiers, drones and queens and colonies can occupy and use a wide area of land to support them. Ant colonies are sometimes described as superorganisms because the colony appears to operate as a single entity.Ants have colonized almost every landmass on Earth. Ants can constitute up to 15-25% of the total animal biomass. Up to 1/3 (33%) of the terrestrial animal biomass has been estimated to be made up of ants and termites.
There are about 11,880 known ant species, most of which are tropical.
Termites, sometimes called white ants, though similar in social structure are not even closely related to ants. Ants comprise the more primitive order Isoptera and are more closely related to cockroaches.
Ants Ancestry
Ants are classified as a family, Formicidae, belonging to the order Hymenoptera which also includes sawflies, bees and wasps. Ants are a lineage derived from within the vespoid wasps. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that ants evolved from other groups of wasps in the mid-Cretaceous period about 120 to 170 million years ago. After the rise of angiosperms about 100 million years ago, ant evolution also showed rapid change, and by about 60 million years ago ants had moved to ecological dominance. Several fossils from the Cretaceous are intermediate in form between wasps and ants, further confirming the wasp ancestry of ants. Like other Hymenoptera, the genetic system found in ants is Haplodiploidy.In 1966 E. O. Wilson et al. obtained the first fossil remains of an ant (Sphecomyrma freyi) from the Cretaceous era. The specimen was trapped in amber from New Jersey that was more than eighty million years old. This species provides evidence of a link between modern ants and non-social wasps. Cretaceous ants shared a couple of wasp-like traits together with modern ant-like characteristics.
During the Cretaceous era, representatives of only a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on what was the super-continent Laurasia (the northern hemisphere). Ants were scarce in comparison to other insects (about only 1%). It was adaptive radiation which gave ants the dominance at the beginning of the Tertiary Period. Of the species extant in the Cretaceous and Eocene eras, only 1 of about 10 genera is now extinct. 56% of the genera represented on the Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 96% of the genera represented in the Dominican amber fossils (apparently early Miocene) still survive today.
Ants Morphology
This closeup shows the prominent mandibles and the comparatively small compound eyes.Ants are distinguished from other insects by the following traits: elbowed antennae; a strongly constricted second abdominal segment forming a distinct node-like petiole; the petiole can be formed by one or two "parts" or segments (only the second, or the second and third abdominal segments can form it). Ants have a wingless worker caste; the presence of a metapleural gland is also distinctive.Ant bodies, like other insects, have an exoskeleton, meaning their bodies are externally covered in a protective casing, as opposed to the internal skeletal framework of humans and other vertebrates. Ants do not have lungs. Oxygen passes through tiny pores, the spiracles, in their exoskeleton - the same holes through which carbon dioxide leaves their body. Nor do Ants have a heart; a colorless blood, the hemolymph, runs from their head to rear and back again along a long tube. Their nervous system is much like a human spinal cord in that it is a continuous cord, the ventral nerve cord, from head to rear with branches into each extremity.
There are three main divisions of the ant body are the head, mesosoma and metasoma.
The head of an ant has many important parts. Ant eyes are compound eyes, similar to fly eyes: Ants have many smaller eyes attached together which enables them to see movement very well. Most ants have poor to mediocre eyesight; some are blind altogether. A few have exceptional vision though, such as Australia's bulldog ant. Also attached to the head of an ant are two feelers. The feelers are special smelling organs that help ants communicate. Ants release pheromones (chemicals that have different smells) to communicate with each other and the feelers pick these smells as signals. The head also has two strong pinchers, the mandibles, which are used to carry food, to dig, and to defend. There is also a small pocket inside the mouth where ants can store food and give to others in need.
The thorax of the ant is where all six legs are attached. At the end of each leg is a sharp claw that helps ants climb and hang onto things. Most queens and male ants have wings, which Ants drop after the nuptial flight; however wingless queens (ergatoids) and males can occur.
The metasoma of the ant houses many of the important internal organs. Some species of ants have stingers used for subduing prey and defending their nests.
Ant Development
The life of an ant starts with an egg. If the egg is fertilized, the ant will be female; if not, it will be male. Ants are holometabolous, and develop by complete metamorphosis, passing through larval and pupal stages (with the pupae being exarate) before Ants become adults. The larval stage is particularly helpless for instance it lacks legs entirely and cannot care for itself. The difference between queens and workers (which are both female), and between different castes of workers when Ants exist, is determined by the feeding in the larval stage. Food is given to the larvae by a process called trophallaxis in which an ant regurgitates food previously held in its crop for communal storage. This is also how adults distribute food amongst themselves. Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so are often moved around various brood chambers within the colony.A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. After that it graduates to digging and other nest work, and then to foraging and defense of the nest. These changes are fairly abrupt and define what are called temporal castes. One theory of why this occurs is because foraging has a high death rate, so ants only participate in it when Ants are older and closer to death anyway. In a few ants there are also physical castes workers come in a spectrum of sizes, called minor, median, and major workers, the latter beginning foraging sooner. Often the larger ants will have disproportionately larger heads, and so stronger mandibles. Such individuals are sometimes called "soldier" ants because their stronger mandibles make them more effective in fighting other creatures, although Ants are still in fact worker ants and their "duties" typically do not vary greatly from the minor or median workers. In a few species the median workers have disappeared, creating a sharp divide and clear physical difference between the minors and majors.
Most of the common ant species breed in the same way. Only the Queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens. The male ants, called drones, along with the breeding females are born with wings, and do nothing throughout their life except eat, until the time for mating comes. At this time, all breeding ants, excluding the queen, are carried outside where other colonies of similar species are doing the same. Then, all the winged breeding ants take flight. Mating occurs in flight and the males die shortly afterward. The females that survive land and seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, Ants break off their own wings and begin to lay eggs, which Ants care for. Sperm obtained during their nuptial flight is stored and used to fertilise all future eggs produced. The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers, but Ants begin to serve the colony immediately. Ants enlarge the nest, forage for food and care for the other eggs. This is how most new colonies start. A few species that have multiple queens can start a new colony as a queen from the old nest takes a number of workers to a new site and founds a colony there.
Ant colonies can be long-lived. The queens themselves can live for upto 30 years, while workers live from 1 to 3 years. Males however are short lived and live for only for a few weeks.
Ant Polymorphism
Ants show a wide range of morphological differences between the castes. While in some species, these differences are small, Ants are large in others. In some ant species there can be several size variants within the worker castes.Some ants, called honeypot ants, have special workers called repletes who simply store food for the rest of the colony, generally becoming immobile with greatly enlarged abdomens. In hot, dry places, even deserts, in Africa, North America and Australia where Ants live, Ants are considered by some people as a great delicacy.
Ant behavior and ecology
Ant Communication
Acrobat ant (Crematogaster - Myrmecidinae) Ant mound hole - preventing water coming into nest during rainAnt communication is accomplished primarily through chemicals called pheromones. Because most ants spend their time in direct contact with the ground, these chemical messages are more developed than in other Hymenopterans. So for instance, when a forager finds food, she will leave a pheromone trail along the ground on her way home. In a short time other ants will follow this pheromone trail. Home is often located through the use of remembered landmarks and the position of the sun as detected with compound eyes and also by means of special sky polarization-detecting fibers within the eyes. Returning home, Ants reinforce this same trail which in turn attracts more ants until the food is exhausted, after which the trail is no longer reinforced and so slowly dissipates. This behavior helps ants adapt to changes in their environment. When an established path to a food source is blocked by a new obstacle, the foragers leave the path to explore new routes. If successful, the returning ant leaves a new trail marking the shortest route. Since each ant prefers to follow a path richer in pheromone rather than poorer, the resulting route is also the shortest available.Ants make use of pheromones for other purposes as well. A crushed ant, for example, will emit an alarm pheromone which in high concentration sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy; and in lower concentration, merely attracts them. To confuse their enemies, several ant species even use what are termed propaganda pheromones.
Like other insects, ants smell with their antennae, which are long and thin. These are fairly mobile, having a distinct elbow joint after an elongated first segment; and since Ants come in pairs--rather like binocular vision or stereophonic sound equipment--they provide information about direction as well as intensity. Pheromones are also exchanged as compounds mixed with food and passed in trophallaxis, giving the ants information about one another's health and nutrition. Ants can also detect what task group (e.g. foraging or nest maintenance) to which other ants belong. Of special note, the queen produces a certain pheromone without which the workers would begin raising new queens.
Ant Defense
Ants attack and defend themselves by biting and in many species, stinging, often injecting chemicals like formic acid. Bullet Ants (Genus Paraponera), located in Central and South America, are considered to have the most painful sting among insects although these are usually non-fatal. Ants are given the highest rating on the Schmidt Sting Pain Index. Jack jumper ants, (Myrmecia pilosula) located in Australia have stings that cause fatality to a small number of people in the population, and cause hospitalizations each year.Fire ants (Solenopsis spp.) are unique in having a Poison sac containing piperidine alkaloids.
Some ants of the genus Odontomachus are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws. This snap-jaw mechanism, or catapult mechanism, is possible because energy is stored in the large closing muscles. The blow is incredibly fast, about 0.5 ms in the genus Mystrium. Before the strike, the mandibles open wide and are locked in the open position by the labrum, which functions as a latch. The attack is triggered by stimulation of sensory hairs at the side of the mandibles. The mandibles are also able to function as a tool for more finely adjusted tasks. Two similar groups are Odontomachus and Dacetini - examples of convergent evolution.
Ant Learning
While many types of animals can learn behaviors by imitating other animals, ants may be the only group of animals besides primates and some other mammals in which interactive teaching behavior has been observed. Knowledgeable forager ants of the species Temnothorax albipennis directly lead naive nest-mates to newly discovered food sources by the excruciatingly slow (and time-costly) process of tandem running. The follower thereby obtains knowledge that it would not have, had it not been tutored, and this is at the expense of its nest-mate teacher. Both leader and follower are acutely sensitive to the progress of their partner. For example, the leader slows down when the follower lags too far behind, and speeds up when the follower gets too close, while the follower does the opposite.Ant Nest construction
While some ants form complex nests and galleries, other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures. Some species form subterranean nests, while others build nests on trees. The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter.Some of the more advanced ants are the army ants and driver ants, from South America and Africa respectively. Unlike most species which have permanent nests, army and driver ants do not form permanent nests, but instead alternate between nomadic stages and stages where the workers form a temporary nest (bivouac) out of their own bodies. Colonies reproduce either through nuptial flights as described above, or by fission, where a group of workers simply dig a new hole and raise new queens. Colony members are distinguished by smell, and other intruders are usually attacked.
Weaver ants (Oecophylla) build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then sewing them together by pressing silk-producing larvae against them in alternation.
Ant Food cultivation
Leafcutter ants (Atta and Acromyrmex) feed exclusively on a special fungus that lives only within their colonies. Ants continually collect leaves which Ants cut into tiny pieces for the fungus to grow on. These ants have several differently sized castes especially for cutting up the pieces Ants are supplied with into even smaller pieces. Leaf cutter ants are sensitive enough to adapt to the fungi's reaction to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is toxic to the fungus the colony will no longer collect it. The ants grow the fungus because it produces special structures called gongylidia which are fed on by the ants. Ants create antibiotics on their skin, and subsist entirely on this farming of the fungus.Ant Navigation
Desert ants Cataglyphis fortis make use of visual landmarks in combination with other cues to navigate.Sahara desert ants have been shown to navigate by keeping track of the distance travelled, like an internal pedometer that keeps tracks of how many steps Ants take, and use this information to find their way back to their nests.
Ant Locomotion
Ants usually lose, or never develop, their wings. Therefore, unlike their wasp ancestors, most ants travel by walking.The more cooperative species of ants sometimes form chains to bridge gaps, whether that be over water, underground, or through spaces in arboreal paths.
Ant Harpegnathos saltatory
Among their reproductive members, most species of ant do retain wings beyond their mating flight; most females remove their own wings when returning to the ground to lay eggs, while the males almost invariably die after that maiden flight.Some ants are even capable of leaping. A particularly notable species is Jerdon's Jumping ant (Harpegnathos saltator). This is achieved by synchronized action of the mid and hind pair of legs.
Polyrhachis sokolova, a species of ant found in Australian mangrove swamps, can swim and live underwater.
Gliding ants
There are several species of gliding ant including Cephalotes atratus. In fact this may be a common trait among most arboreal ants. Ants with this ability are able to direct the direction of their descent while falling.Ant cooperation and competition
Not all ants have the same kind of societies. The Australian bulldog ants are among the biggest and most primitive of ants. Individual hunts alone, using its large eyes instead of their chemical senses to find prey. Like all ants Ants are social, but their social behavior is poorly developed compared to more advanced species. The Australian bulldog ant Myrmecia pilosula has only a single pair of chromosomes and males have just one chromosome as Ants are haploid.Some species of ants are known for attacking and taking over the colonies of others ant species. Others are less expansionist but nonetheless just as aggressive; Ants attack colonies to steal eggs or larvae, which Ants either eat or raise as workers/slaves. Some ants, such as the Amazon Ants, are incapable of feeding themselves, but must rely on captured worker ants to care for them. In some cases ant colonies may have other species of ants or termites within the same nest.
The Pavement ant is famous for its urge to increase its territory. In early spring, colonies attempt to conquer new areas and often attack the nearest enemy colony. These result in huge sidewalk battles, sometimes leaving thousands of ants dead. Because of their aggressive nature, Ants often invade and colonize seemingly impenetrable areas.
Some ants will raid the colonies of other ants, taking the pupae with them, which once hatched act as workers in the raider's colonies despite not being genetically related to the queen. A few species, such as the Amazon Ants (e.g. Polyergus rufescens), have become utterly dependent on such slaves, to the point of being otherwise unable to feed themselves.
Ants identify kin and nestmates through their scents, a hydrocarbon-laced secretions that coats their exoskeletons. If an ant is separated from its original colony, it will eventually lose the colony scent. Any ant that enters a colony with a different scent than itself will be attacked.
Ant Diversity
There is a great diversity among ants and their behaviors. Ants range in size from 2 to about 25 millimetres (about 0.08 to 1 inch). Their color may vary; most are red or black, but other colors can also be seen, including some tropical groups with a metallic lustre. Numerous species of ant continue to be added in present times and taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematics of ants. Online databases of ant species include AntBase and the Hymenoptera Name Server.Ants have been used as indicator species in biodiversity studies.
Ant Relationships with other species
Ants are associated with other species in a wide variety of ways. These associations include mutualistic and parasitic relationships as well as interactions with more than one species which are not fully understood. Well known relationships are between other insects, especially those that secrete honeydew and those with plants and fungi.An ant collects honeydew from an aphidAphids secrete a sweet liquid called honeydew. Normally this is allowed to fall to the ground, but around ants it is kept for them to collect. The ants in turn keep predators away and will move the aphids around to better feeding locations. Upon migrating to a new area, many colonies will take new aphids with them, to ensure that Ants have a supply of honeydew in the new area. Ants also tend mealy bugs to harvest their honeydew. Mealybugs can become a serious pest of pineapple if ants are present to protect mealybugs from natural enemies.
Camponotus compressus tending soft scales - A Lycaenid larva and an antMyrmecophilous (ant-loving) caterpillars of the Lycaenidae family (e.g., blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime, and brought inside the ants' nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew when the ants massage them. Some caterpillars are known to produce vibrations and sounds that are sensed by the ants. Some caterpillars have evolved from being ant-loving to ant-eating and these myrmecophagous caterpillars secrete a pheromone which makes the ants think that the caterpillar's larva is one of their own. The larva will then be taken into the ants' nest where it can feed on the ant larvae.
Fungus-growing ants that make up the tribe attini, including Leafcutter ants, actively cultivate certain species of fungus in the Leucoagaricus or Leucocoprinus genera of the Agaricaceae family. In this ant-fungus mutualism, both species depend on each other for survival. Allomerus decemarticulatus has evolved a tripartite association with their host plant Hirtella physophora (Chrysobalanaceae), and a fungus in order to ambush and obtain protein nutrition from prey insects.
Lemon Ants make Devil's gardens by killing all surrounding plants besides lemon ant trees. Many trees have extra floral nectaries that provide food for ants and the ants in turn protect the plant from herbivorous insects. Some species like the bullhorn acacia (Acacia cornigera) in Central America have hollow thorns that serve to house colonies of stinging ants (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) that defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals, and epiphytic vines. In return, the ants obtain food from protein-lipid Beltian bodies. Another example of this type of ectosymbiosis comes from the Macaranga tree which have stems adapted to house colonies of Crematogaster ants. Many tropical tree species have seeds that are dispersed by ants.
Calliphoridae in the Old World genus Bengalia are kleptoparasites and predators on ants and often snatch prey or brood from the adult ants. A Malaysian phorid fly Vestigipoda myrmolarvoidea has females that are wingless and legless and Ants live in the nests of ants of the genus Aenictus and are fed and cared for by the ants.
Humans and ants
Ants nesting - Ants in Sumatran RainforestAnts are useful for clearing out insect pests and aerating the soil. On the other hand, Ants can become annoyances when Ants invade homes, yards, gardens and fields. Carpenter ants damage wood by hollowing it out for nesting. Nests may be destroyed by tracing the ants' trails back to the nest, then pouring boiling water into it to kill the queen. (Killing individual ants is less than effective due to the secretion of pheromones mentioned above). Many scales and homopteran species that are considered as horticultural pests are controlled by the use of grease rings on the trunks of the trees. These rings cut off the routes for ants and make the pest species vulnerable to parasites and predators.In some parts of the world large ants have been used as sutures by pressing the wound together and applying ants along it. The ant in defensive attitude seizes the edges in its mandibles and locks in place. The body is then cut off and the mandibles can remain in place for up to three days closing the wound.
Some species, called killer ants, have a tendency to attack much larger animals during foraging or in defending their nests. Human attacks are rare, but the stings and bites can be quite painful and in large enough numbers can be disabling.
The Masai of Africa had an abiding respect for the Siafu Ants, voracious predators that consume a large amount of insects and are welcomed for the benefit Ants bring to farmers, as Ants will eliminate all pests from a crop and quickly move on.
Ants as food
Ants and their larvae are eaten in different parts of the world. In Mexico, larvae of Liometopum ants, known locally as escamoles are considered a great delicacy. In the Colombian department of Santander Atta colona ants are toasted alive and eaten. This tradition has come down from the native Guanes. In parts of Thailand, ants are prepared and eaten in various ways. Khorat ant eggs and diced flying ants are eaten as an appetizer. Weaver Ant Eggs and Larva as well as the ants themselves maybe used in a Thai Salad, Yum, in a dish called Yum Khai Mod Daeng or Red Ant Egg Salad, a dish that comes from the Issan or North-Eastern region of Thailand. In South Africa, ants are used to help harvest Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis), which are difficult to cultivate plants that are used to make a herbal tea called tisane.Australian green ants are eaten by the aboriginals. Their abdomens taste like lemon sherbet, are high in vitamin C and have antibiotic properties. Squashed green ants mashed in water makes up an excellent lemon-lime flavored drink.
Ants as pests
Modern society considers the ant a pest, and due to the adaptive nature of ant colonies, eliminating one is near impossible. Pest control with regard to ants is more a matter of controlling local populations than eliminating an entire colony. Attempts to control ant populations of any kind are temporary solutions.Typical ants that are classified as pests include Pavement Ants (otherwise known as the sugar ant), Pharaoh Ants, Carpenter Ants, Argentine Ants, and the Red Imported Fire Ant. Control of species populations are usually done with bait insecticides, which are either in the form of small granules, or as a sticky liquid that is gathered by the ants as food and then brought back to the nest where the Poison is inadvertently spread to other members of the brood a system that can severely reduce the numbers in a colony if used properly. Boric acid and borax are often used as insecticides that are relatively safe for humans. With the recent insurgence of the Red Imported Fire Ant, a tactic called broadcast baiting has been employed, by which the substance (usually a granule bait designed specifically for Fire Ants) is spread across a large area, such as a lawn, in order to control populations.
Ants in culture
Ants have often been used in fables and children's stories to represent industriousness and cooperative effort, as well as aggressiveness and vindictiveness. In parts of Africa, ants are the messengers of the gods. Ant bites are often said to have curative properties. Some Native American religions, such as Hopi mythology, recognize ants as the very first animals. Others use ant bites in initiation ceremonies as a test of endurance.The Japanese word for ant, ari, is represented by an ideograph formed of the character for insect combined with the character signifying moral rectitude, propriety (giri). So the haracter actually means The Propriety-Insect.
Ant society has always fascinated humans and has been written about both humorously and seriously by writers. Mark Twain wrote about ants in his A Tramp Abroad. In more recent times, animated cartoons featuring ants have been produced include Antz, A Bug's Life, The Ant Bully, The Ant and the Aardvark and Atom Ant.
Ant inspired technology
The successful techniques used by ant colonies has been widely studied especially in computer science and robotics to produce distributed and fault-tolerant systems for solving problems. This area of biomimetics has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines which make use of foraging trails and fault tolerant storage and networking algorithms.
