Jewelry!
Jewelry
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Jewelry has probably been around since the dawn of man; indeed, recently found 100,000 year-old Nassarius shells that were made into beads are thought to be the oldest known jewelry. Although in earlier times jewelry was created for more practical uses, such as wealth storage and pinning clothes together, in recent times it has been used almost exclusively for decoration. The first pieces of jewelry were made from natural materials, such as bone and animal teeth, shell, wood and carved stone. jewelry was often made for people of high importance to show their status and in many cases, they were buried with it.
Jewelry is made out of almost every material known and has been made to adorn nearly every body part, from hairpins to toe rings and many more types of jewelry. While high-quality and artistic pieces are made with gemstones and precious metals, less costly costume jewelry is made from less valuable materials and is mass-produced.
Jewelry Form and function
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currency, wealth display and storage,
functional use (such as clasps, pins, and buckles)
symbolism (to show membership or status)
protection (in the form of amulets and magical wards), and artistic display
Most cultures have at some point had a practice of keeping large amounts of wealth stored in the form of jewelry. Numerous cultures move wedding dowries in the form of jewelry, or create jewelry as a means to store or display coins. Alternatively,
Jewelry has been used as a currency or trade good; a particularly poignant example being the use of slave beads.
Functional use dates back to the earliest days of jewelry; indeed, many items of jewelry, such as brooches and buckles originated as purely functional items, became more decorated over time, and in some cases became purely art objects as their functional requirement disappeared.
Jewelry can also be symbolic of group membership, as in the case of the Christian crucifix or Jewish Star of David, or status, as in the case of chains of office, or the Western practice of married people wearing a wedding ring.
Wearing of amulets and devotional medals to provide protection or ward off evil is nearly universal; these may take the form of symbols (such as the ankh), stones, plants, animals, body parts (such as the Khamsa), or glyphs (such as stylized versions of the Throne Verse in Islamic art).
Although artistic display has clearly been a function of jewelry from the very beginnings, the other roles described above tended to take primacy. It was only in the late 19th century, with the work of such masters as Peter Carl Faberg' and Ren' Lalique, that art began to take primacy over function and wealth. This trend has continued into modern times, expanded upon by artists such as Robert Lee Morris.
Jewelry Materials and methods
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Other commonly used materials include glass, such as fused glass or enamel; wood, often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal substances such as bone and ivory; natural clay, polymer clay, and even plastics.
A selection of diamonds.Other commonly used materials include glass, such as fused glass or enamel; wood, often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal substances such as bone and ivory; natural clay, polymer clay, and even plastics.
Beads are frequently used in jewelry. These may be made of many different substances including glass, gemstones, metal, wood, shells, clay and polymer clay. Beaded jewelry commonly encompasses necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and belts. Beads may be large or small. The smallest type of beads commonly used are known as seed beads; these are the beads used for the "woven" style of beaded jewelry.
Advanced glass and glass beadmaking techniques by Murano and Venetian glassmasters made a significant difference in jewelry designs. These artisans developed and refined many technologies, creating crystalline glass, enameled glass (smalto), glass with threads of gold (aventurine), multicolored glass (millefiori), milk glass (lattimo), and imitation gemstones made of glass. As early as the 13th century, Murano glass and Murano beads became known as the finest glass in the known world.
Silversmiths, goldsmiths, and lapidaries use numerous methods to create jewelry, including forging, casting, soldering or welding, cutting, carving, and "cold-joining" (using adhesives, staples, and rivets to assemble parts).
Jewelry Diamonds
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The British crown jewels contain the Cullinan Diamond, part of the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106.75 carats. Now popular in engagement rings, this usage dates back to the marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477.
Diamonds have long been associated with social issues; in South Africa, diamonds and gold were factors in the start of the Second Boer war in the 1890s, they later factored in treatment of blacks during the apartheid era, and have since been instrumental in exacerbating and prolonging other African conflicts (see Blood diamonds).
Jewelry and Society
One universal factor is control over who could wear what jewelry; a point which indicates the powerful symbolism the wearing of jewelry evoked. In ancient Rome, for instance, only certain ranks could wear rings ; later, sumptuary laws dictated who could wear what type of jewelry; again based on rank. Cultural dictates have also played a significant role; for example, the wearing of earings by Western men was considered "effeminate" in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Conversely, the jewelry industry in the early 20th century launched a campaign to popularize wedding rings for men which caught on as well as engagement rings for men (which did not), going so far as to create a false history and claim that the practice had medieval roots. By the mid 1940s, 85% of weddings in the US featured a double ring ceremony; up from 15% in the 1920s. Religion has also played a role: Islam for instance considers the wearing of gold by men as Haram, and many religions have edicts against excessive display.History of jewelry
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Early jewelry
The first signs of jewelry came from the Cro-Magnons, ancestors of Homo sapiens, around 40,000 years ago. The Cro-Magnons originally migrated from the Middle East to settle in Europe and replace the Neanderthals as the dominant species. The jewelry pieces they made were crude necklaces and bracelets of bone, teeth and stone hung on pieces of string or animal sinew, or pieces of carved bone used to secure clothing together. In some cases, jewelry had shell or mother-of-pearl pieces. In southern Russia, carved bracelets made of mammoth tusk have been found. Most commonly, these have been found as grave-goods. Around 7,000 years ago, the first sign of copper jewelry was seen.Jewelry Europe and the Middle East
Jewelry in Egypt
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Jewelry in Egypt soon began to symbolise power and religious power in the community. Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them in death; with jewelry commonly seen among Grave goods. Unfortunately, due to graver-robbers much of this has been lost to history.
In conjunction with gold jewelry, Egyptians used coloured glass in place of precious gems. Although the Egyptians had access to gemstones, they preferred the colours they could create in glass over the natural colours of stones. For nearly each gemstone, there was a glass formulation used by the Egyptians to mimic it. The colour of the jewelry was very important, as different colours meant different things; the Book of the Dead dictated that the necklace of Isis around a mummy's neck must be red to satisfy Isis's need for blood, while green jewelry meant new growth for crops and fertility. Although lapis lazuli and silver had to be imported from beyond the country's borders, most other materials for jewelry were found in or near Egypt, for example in the Red Sea, where the Egyptians mined Cleopatra's favourite gem, the emerald.
Egyptian jewelry was predominantly made in large workshops attached to temples or palaces.
Egyptian designs were most common in Phoenician designs. Also, ancient Turkish designs found in Persian jewelry suggests trading from the Middle East into Europe was not uncommon. Women used to wear elaborate gold and silver pieces that were used in ceremonies.
Jewelry Mesopotamia
By approximately 4,000 years ago, jewelry-making had become a significant craft in the cities of Sumer and Akkad. The most significant archaeological evidence comes from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, where hundreds of burials dating 2900'2300 BC were unearthed; tombs such as that of Puabi contained a multitude of artifacts in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli crowns embellished with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces, and jewel-headed pins. In Assyria, men and women both wore extensive amounts of jewelry, including amulets, ankle bracelets, heavy multistrand necklaces, and cylinder seals.jewelry in Mesopotamia tended to be manufactured from thin metal leaf and was set with large numbers of brightly-colored stones (chiefly agate, lapis, carnelian, and jasper). Favored shapes included leaves, spirals, cones, and bunches of grapes. Jewellers created works both for human use and for adorning statues and idols; they employed a wide variety of sophisticated metalworking techniques, such as cloisonne, engraving, fine granulation, and filigree.
Extensive and meticulously maintained records pertaining to the trade and manufacture of jewelry have also been unearthed throughout Mesopotamian archaological sites. One record in the Mari royal archives, for example, gives the composition of various items of jewelry:
1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 34 flat speckled chalcedony bead, and 35 gold fluted beads, in groups of five. 1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 39 flat speckled chalcedony beads, with 41 fluted beads in a group that make up the hanging device.
1 necklace with rounded lapis lazuli beads including: 28 rounded lapis lazuili beads, and 29 fluted beads for its clasp.
Jewelry in Greece
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Jewelry in Greece was hardly worn and was
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Pendant with naked woman. Electrum, Rhodes, ca.
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Ancient Greek jewelry from 300 BC.The Greeks took much of their designs from outer origins, such as Asia when Alexander the Great conquered part of it. In earlier designs, other European influences can also be detected. When Roman rule came to Greece, no change in jewelry designs was detected. However, by 27 BC, Greek designs were heavily influenced by the Roman culture. That is not to say that indigenous design did not thrive; numerous polychrome butterfly pendants on silver foxtail chains, dating from the 1st Ccentury, have been found near Olbia, with only one example ever found anywhere else.
Jewelry in Rome
Roman Amethyst intaglio pendant, c. 212 CE; later converted to St. Peter medallion.Although jewelry work was abundantly diverse in earlier times, especially among the barbarian tribes such as the Celts, when the Romans conquered most of Europe, jewelry was changed as smaller factions developed the Roman designs. The most common artefact of early Rome was the brooch, which was used to secure clothing together. The Romans used a diverse range of materials for their jewelry from their extensive resources across the continent. Although they used gold, they sometimes used bronze or bone and in earlier times, glass beads & pearl. As early as 2,000 years ago, they imported Sri Lankan sapphires and Indian diamonds and used emeralds and amber in their jewelry. In Roman-ruled England, fossilized wood called jet from Northern England was often carved into pieces of jewelry. The early Italians worked in crude gold and created clasps, necklaces, earrings and bracelets. They also produced larger pendants which could be filled with perfume.Like the Greeks, often the purpose of Roman jewelry was to ward off the 'Evil Eye' given by other people. Although woman wore a vast array of jewelry, men often only wore a finger ring. Although they were expected to wear at least one ring, some Roman men wore a ring on every finger, while others wore none. Roman men and women wore rings with a carved stone on it that was used with wax to seal documents, an act that continued into medieval times when kings and noblemen used the same method. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the jewelry designs were absorbed by neighbouring countries and tribes.
Jewelry in Medieval times
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Byzantine wedding ring.The Eastern
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Jewelry Renaissance
Sardonyx cameo.The Renaissance and exploration both had significant impacts on the development of jewelry in Europe. By the 17th century, increasing exploration and trade lead to increased availability of a wide variety of gemstones as well as exposure to the art of other cultures. Whereas prior to this the working of gold and precisou metal had been at the forefront of jewelry, this period saw increasing dominance of gemstones and their settings. A fascinating example of this is the Cheapside Hoard, the stock of a jeweller hidden in London England during the Commonwealth period and not found again until 1912. It contained Colombian emerald, topaz, amazonite from Brazil, spinel, iolite, and chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, ruby from India, Afghani lapis lazuli, Persian turquoise, Red Sea peridot, as well as Bohemian and Hungarian opal, garnet, and amethyst. Large stones were frequently set in box-bezels on enamelled rings. Notable among merchants of the period was Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who in the 1660s brought the precursor stone of the Hope Diamond to France.When Napoleon was crowned as Emperor of France in 1804, he revived the style and grandeur of jewelry and fashion in France. Under Napoleon's rule, jewellers introduced parures, suits of matching jewelry, such as a diamond tiara, diamond earrings, diamond rings, a diamond brooch and a diamond necklace. Both of Napoleon's wives had beautiful sets such as these and wore them regularly. Another fashion trend resurrected by Napoleon was the cameo. Soon after his cameo decorated crown was seen, cameos were highly sought after. The period also saw the early stages of costume jewelry, with fish scale covered glass beads in place of pearls or conch shell cameos instead of stone cameos. New terms were coined to differentiate the arts: jewellers who worked in cheaper materials were called bijoutiers, while jewellers who worked with expensive materials were called joailliers; a practice which continues to this day.
Jewelry Romanticism
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In the United states, this period saw the founding in 1837 of Tiffany & Co. by Charles Lewis Tiffany. Tiffany's put the United States on the world map in terms of jewelry, and gained fame creating dazzling commissions for people such as the wife of Abraham Lincoln; later it would gain popular notoriety as the setting of the film Breakfast at Tiffany's. In France, Pierre Cartier founded Cartier SA in 1847, while 1884 saw the founding of Bulgari in Italy. The modern production studio had been born; a step away from the former dominance of individual craftsmen and patronage.
This period also saw the first major collaboration between East and West; collaboration in Pforzheim between German and Japanese artists lead to Shakudo plaques set into Filigree frames being created by the Stoeffler firm in 1885) . Perhaps the grand finale and an appropriate transition to the following period were the masterful creations of the French artist Peter Carl Faberg', working for the Imperial Russian court, whose Faberg' eggs and jewelry pieces are still considered as the epitome of the goldsmith's art.
Jewelry Art Nouveau
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Jewelry art Deco
Growing political tensions, the aftereffects of the war, and a general reaction against the perceived decadence of the turn of the century led to simpler forms, combined with more effective manufacturing for mass production of high-quality jewelry. Covering the period of the 1920s and 1930s, the style has become popularly known as Art Deco. Walter Gropius and the German Bauhaus movement, with their philosophy of "no barriers between artists and "craftsmen" lead to some interesting and stylistically simplified forms. Modern materials were also introduced: plastics and aluminum were first used in jewelry, and of note are the chromed pendants of Russian born Bauhaus master Naum Slutzky. Technical mastery became as valued as the material itself; in the west, this period saw the reinvention of granulation by the German Elizabeth Treskow (although development of the re-invention has continued into the 1990s).Jewelry in Asia
Jewelry making in Asia started in China 5,000 years ago and in the Indus Valley region later on. With roots set deep in religious designs, Asian jewelry was very decorative and used most often in ceremonies.Jewelry in China
The earliest culture to begin making jewelry in Asia was the Chinese around 5,000 years ago. Chinese jewelry designs were very religion-orientated and contained many Buddhist symbols, a fact which remains to this day.The Chinese used silver in their jewelry more often than gold, and decorated it with their favourite colour, blue. Blue kingfisher feathers were tied onto early Chinese jewelry and later, blue gems and glass were incorporated into designs. However, Chinese preferred jade over any other stone. They fashioned it using diamonds, as indicated in finds from areas in the country. The Chinese revered jade because of the human-like qualities they assigned to it, such as its hardness, durability and beauty. The first jade pieces were very simple, but as time progressed, more complex design evolved. Jade rings from beween the 4th and 7th centuries BCE show evidence of having been worked with a compound milling machine; hunderds of years before the first mention of such equipment in the west.
In China, jewelry was worn frequently by both sexes to show their nobility and wealth. However, in later years, it was used to accentuate beauty. Woman wore highly detailed gold and silver head dresses and numerous other items, while men wore decorative hat buttons which showed rank and gold or silver rings. Woman also wore strips of gold on their foreheads, much like women in the Indus Valley. The band served a purpose like an early form of tiara and it was often decorated with precious gems. The most common piece of jewelry worn by Chinese was the earring, which was worn by both men and women. Amulets were also common too, often with a Chinese symbol or dragon. In fact, dragons, Chinese symbols and also phoenixes were frequently depicted on jewelry designs.
The Chinese often placed their jewelry in their graves; most Chinese graves found by archaeologists contain decorative jewelry.
Jewelry in India
The Indian sub-continent has the longest continuous legacy of jewelry making anywhere. While Western traditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of art forms for some 5000 years One of the first to start jewelry making were the peoples of the Indus Valley region. By 1,500 BC the peoples of the Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and necklaces, bead necklaces and metallic bangles. Before 2,100 BC, prior to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewelry trade in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. Beads in the Indus Valley were made using simple techniques. First, a bead maker would need a rough stone, which would be bought from an eastern stone trader. The stone would then be placed into a hot oven where it would be heated until it turned deep red, a colour highly prized by people of the Indus Valley. The red stone would then be chipped to the right size and a hole drilled through it with primitive drills. The beads were then polished. Some beads were also painted with designs. This art form was often passed down through family; children of bead makers often learnt how to work beads from a young age.jewelry in the Indus Valley was worn predominantly by females, who wore numerous clay or shell bracelets on their wrists. They were often shaped like doughnuts and painted black. Over time, clay bangles were discarded for more durable ones. In India today, bangles are made out of metal or glass. Other pieces that women frequently wore were thin bands of gold that would be worn on the forehead, earrings, primitive brooches, chokers and gold rings. The people of the region were much more urbanised than the rest of the area, so the jewelry worn was of heavier make once the civilization developed. Although women wore jewelry the most, some men in the Indus Valley wore beads. Small beads were often crafted to be placed in men and women's hair. The beads were so small they usually measured in at only 1 millimetre long.
Unlike many other cultures, Indus Valley jewelry was never buried with the dead. Instead, jewelry was passed down to children or family. Nobility and goldsmiths often hid their jewelry under their floorboards to avoid theft.
As time progressed, the methods for jewelry advanced, thus allowing complex jewelry to be made. Necklaces were soon adorned with gems and green stone.
Although they used other gems prior, India was the first country to mine diamonds, with some mines dating back to 296 BC. However, axes dating to 4,000 BC found in China from previous factions of the country, contain traces of diamond dust used to sharpen the blades. While China used the diamonds they found mainly for carving jade, India traded the diamonds, realising their valuable qualities. This trade almost vanished 1,000 years after Christianity grew as a religion, as Christians rejected the diamonds which were used in Indian religious amulets. Along with Arabians from the Middle East restricting the trade, India's diamond jewelry trade lulled.
Today, many of the jewelry designs and traditions are still used and jewelry is commonplace in Indian ceremonies and weddings.
Jewelry in the Americas
Jewelry played a major role in the fate of the Americas when the Spanish established an empire to seize South American gold. jewelry making developed in the Americas 5,000 years ago in Central and South America. Large amounts of gold was easily accessible, and the Aztecs and Mayans created numerous works in the metal. Among the Aztecs, only nobility wore gold jewelry, as it showed their rank, power and wealth. Gold jewelry was most common in the Aztec Empire and was often decorated with feathers from birds. The main purpose of Aztec jewelry was to draw attention, with richer and more powerful Aztecs wearing brighter, more expensive jewelry and clothes. Although gold was the most common and popular material used in Aztec jewelry, silver was also readily available throughout the American empires. In addition to adornment and status, the Aztecs also used jewelry in sacrifices to appease the gods. Priests also used gem encrusted daggers to perform animal and humen sacrifices.Another ancient American civilization with expertise in jewelry making was the Maya. At the peak of their civilization, the Maya were making beautiful jewelry from jade, gold, silver, bronze and copper. Maya designs were similar to those of the Aztecs, with lavish head dresses and jewelry. The Maya also traded in precious gems. However, in earlier times, the Maya had little access to metal, so made the majority of their jewelry out of bone or stone. Merchants and nobility were the only few that wore expensive jewelry in the Maya Empire, much the same as with the Aztecs. In North America, Native Americans used shells, wood, turquoise, and soapstone, almost unavailable in South and Central America. The Native Americans utilized the properties of the stone and used it often in their jewelry, particularly in earlier periods. The turquoise was used in necklaces and to be placed in earrings. Native Americans with access to oyster shells, often located in only one location in American, traded the shells with other tribes, showing the great importance of the body adornment trade in Northern America.
. Although initially of interest either as a curiosity or a source of raw material, jewelry designs from the Americas has come to play a significant role in modern jewelry.
Jewelry in the Pacific
Jewelry making in the Pacific started later than in other areas due to relatively recent human settlement. Early jewelry was likely made of bone and wood, and has not survived. One notable exception to this is New Zealand, where the Maori create Hei-tiki. The reason the hei-tiki is worn is not apparent, it may either relate to ancestral connections, as Tiki was the first Maori, or fertility, as there is a strong connection between this and Tiki. Hei-tikis are traditionally carved by hand from nephrite or bowenite; a lengthy and spiritual process.Modern jewelry
The jewelry as art movement, spearheaded by artisans such as Robert Lee Morris, has kept jewelry on the leading edge of artistic design. Influence from other cultural forms is also evident; one example of this is bling-bling style jewelry, popularized by hip-hop and rap artists in the early 21st century.The advent of new materials, such as plastics, Precious Metal Clay (PMC) and different colouring techniques, has led to increased variety in styles. Other advances, such as the development of improved pearls harvesting by people such as Kokichi Mikimoto, and the development of improved quality artificial gemstones such as moissanite (a synthetic diamond) has placed jewelry within the economic grasp of a much larger segment of the population. The late 20th century saw the blending of European design with oriental techniques such as Mokume-gane. Tim McCreight, an eminent authour and silversmith, cites the following as the primary innovations in the decades stadling the year 2000: "Mokume-gane, hydraulic die forming, anti-clastic raising, fold-forming, reactive metal anodizing, shell forms, PMC, photoetching, and use of CAD/CAM."
Among early 21st century developments, several jewellers have experimented with ephemeral edible jewelry; including necklaces made of bread and silver rings encrusted with crystalized sugar.
Jewelry and body modification
Young girl from the Padaung tribe.It can be difficult to determine where jewelry leaves off and body modification takes over. Padaung women in Myanmar place large golden rings around their necks. From as early as 5 years old, girls are introduced to their first neck ring. Over the years, more rings are added. In addition to the twenty-plus pounds of rings on her neck, a woman will also wear just as many rings on her calves too. At their extent, some necks modified like this can reach 10-15 inches long; the practice has obvious health impacts, however, and has in recent years declined from cultural norm to tourist curiosity. Tribes related to the Paduang, as well as other cultures throughout the world, use jewelry to stretch their earlobes, or enlarge ear piercings. In the Americas, labrets have been worn since before first contact by innu and first nations peoples of the northwest coast. Lip plates are worn by the African Mursi and Sara people, as well as some South American peoples.In the late 20th century, the influence of modern primitivism led to many of these practices being incorporated into western subcultures. Many of these practices rely on a combination of body modification and decorative objects; thus keeping the distinction between these two types of decoration blurred. As with other forms of jewelry, the crossing of cultural boundaries is one of the more significant features of the artform in the early 21st century,
Jewelry In popular culture
In line with the significance rings and amulets have played historically, it is not unusual that this should have been copied in fiction. Perhaps the most well-known example is J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings trilogy. The Green Lantern graphic novel is another common example.Computer role-playing games also commonly use rings, bracelets, and other jewelry as objects embued with special powers.
